Número π
3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433... Usos
Propiedades
Valor
Personas
En la cultura popular
Temas relacionados
La siguiente es una lista de fórmulas importantes que involucran la constante matemática π (pi) . Muchas de estas fórmulas se pueden encontrar en el artículo principal sobre el número π .
π
=
C
d
=
C
2
r
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {C}{d}}={\frac {C}{2r}}}
donde C es la circunferencia del círculo , d es el diámetro y r es el radio . Más generalmente:
A
=
π
r
2
{\displaystyle A=\pi r^{2}}
donde A es el área del círculo . Más generalmente,
π
=
L
w
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {L}{w}}}
donde L y w son, respectivamente, el perímetro y el ancho de cualquier curva de ancho constante .
A
=
π
a
b
{\displaystyle A=\pi ab}
donde A es el área demarcada por una elipse con semieje mayor a y semieje menor b .
C
=
2
π
agm
(
a
,
b
)
(
a
1
2
−
∑
n
=
2
∞
2
n
−
1
(
a
n
2
−
b
n
2
)
)
{\displaystyle C={\frac {2\pi }{\operatorname {agm} (a,b)}}\left(a_{1}^{2}-\sum _{n=2}^{\infty }2^{n-1}(a_{n}^{2}-b_{n}^{2})\right)}
donde C es la circunferencia de una elipse con semieje mayor a y semieje menor b y
a
n
,
b
n
{\displaystyle a_{n},b_{n}}
son las iteraciones aritméticas y geométricas de
agm
(
a
,
b
)
{\displaystyle \operatorname {agm} (a,b)}
, la media aritmético-geométrica de a y b con los valores iniciales
a
0
=
a
{\displaystyle a_{0}=a}
y
b
0
=
b
{\displaystyle b_{0}=b}
.
A
=
4
π
r
2
{\displaystyle A=4\pi r^{2}}
donde A es el área entre la bruja de Agnesi y su recta asintótica; r es el radio del círculo que lo define.
A
=
Γ
(
1
/
4
)
2
2
π
r
2
=
π
r
2
agm
(
1
,
1
/
2
)
{\displaystyle A={\frac {\Gamma (1/4)^{2}}{2{\sqrt {\pi }}}}r^{2}={\frac {\pi r^{2}}{\operatorname {agm} (1,1/{\sqrt {2}})}}}
donde A es el área de un squircle con radio menor r y
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
es la función gamma .
A
=
(
k
+
1
)
(
k
+
2
)
π
r
2
{\displaystyle A=(k+1)(k+2)\pi r^{2}}
donde A es el área de una epicicloide con el círculo más pequeño de radio r y el círculo más grande de radio kr (
k
∈
N
{\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {N} }
), asumiendo que el punto inicial se encuentra en el círculo más grande.
A
=
(
−
1
)
k
+
3
8
π
a
2
{\displaystyle A={\frac {(-1)^{k}+3}{8}}\pi a^{2}}
donde A es el área de una rosa con frecuencia angular k (
k
∈
N
{\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {N} }
) y amplitud a .
L
=
Γ
(
1
/
4
)
2
π
c
=
2
π
c
agm
(
1
,
1
/
2
)
{\displaystyle L={\frac {\Gamma (1/4)^{2}}{\sqrt {\pi }}}c={\frac {2\pi c}{\operatorname {agm} (1,1/{\sqrt {2}})}}}
donde L es el perímetro de la lemniscata de Bernoulli con distancia focal c .
V
=
4
3
π
r
3
{\displaystyle V={4 \over 3}\pi r^{3}}
donde V es el volumen de una esfera y r es el radio.
S
A
=
4
π
r
2
{\displaystyle SA=4\pi r^{2}}
donde SA es el área de superficie de una esfera y r es el radio.
H
=
1
2
π
2
r
4
{\displaystyle H={1 \over 2}\pi ^{2}r^{4}}
donde H es el hipervolumen de la triple esfera y r es el radio.
S
V
=
2
π
2
r
3
{\displaystyle SV=2\pi ^{2}r^{3}}
donde SV es el volumen de superficie de la triple-esfera y r es el radio.
Polígonos convexos regulares
editar
Suma S de los ángulos internos de un polígono regular convexo de n lados:
S
=
(
n
−
2
)
π
{\displaystyle S=(n-2)\pi }
Área A de un polígono regular convexo con n lados y lados de longitud s :
A
=
n
s
2
4
cot
π
n
{\displaystyle A={\frac {ns^{2}}{4}}\cot {\frac {\pi }{n}}}
Radio inscrito r de un polígono regular convexo con n lados y lados de longitud s :
r
=
s
2
cot
π
n
{\displaystyle r={\frac {s}{2}}\cot {\frac {\pi }{n}}}
Circunradio R de un polígono regular convexo con n lados y lados de longitud s :
R
=
s
2
csc
π
n
{\displaystyle R={\frac {s}{2}}\csc {\frac {\pi }{n}}}
Fórmulas que dan π como resultado
editar
∑
n
=
1
∞
(
−
1
)
n
+
1
n
2
=
1
1
2
−
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
−
1
4
2
+
⋯
=
π
2
12
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n+1}}{n^{2}}}={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{4^{2}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{2}}{12}}}
∫
−
∞
∞
sech
x
d
x
=
π
{\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\operatorname {sech} x\,dx=\pi }
2
∫
−
1
1
1
−
x
2
d
x
=
π
{\displaystyle 2\int _{-1}^{1}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}\,dx=\pi }
(el doble de la integral de un semicírculo
y
(
x
)
=
1
−
x
2
{\displaystyle y(x)={\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}}
para obtener el área del círculo unitario)
∫
−
1
1
d
x
1
−
x
2
=
π
{\displaystyle \int _{-1}^{1}{\frac {dx}{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}}=\pi }
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
2
n
+
1
)
2
=
1
1
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+
⋯
=
π
2
8
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2n+1}}\right)^{2}={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{7^{2}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{2}}{8}}}
∫
−
∞
∞
d
x
1
+
x
2
=
π
{\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {dx}{1+x^{2}}}=\pi }
[ 2] (véase también distribución de Cauchy )
∫
−
∞
∞
sin
x
x
d
x
=
π
{\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\sin x}{x}}\,dx=\pi }
(véase integral de Dirichlet )
∮
d
z
z
=
2
π
i
{\displaystyle \oint {\frac {dz}{z}}=2\pi i}
(cuando el camino de integración gira una vez en sentido antihorario alrededor de 0. Véase también la fórmula integral de Cauchy ).
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
(
2
n
+
1
)
2
k
+
1
=
(
−
1
)
k
E
2
k
2
(
2
k
)
!
(
π
2
)
2
k
+
1
,
k
∈
N
0
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{(2n+1)^{2k+1}}}=(-1)^{k}{\frac {E_{2k}}{2(2k)!}}\left({\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)^{2k+1},\quad k\in \mathbb {N} _{0}}
∫
−
∞
∞
e
−
x
2
d
x
=
π
{\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }e^{-x^{2}}\,dx={\sqrt {\pi }}}
(véase la integral gaussiana ).
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
(
n
2
−
n
)
/
2
2
n
+
1
=
1
+
1
3
−
1
5
−
1
7
+
1
9
+
1
11
−
⋯
=
π
2
2
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{(n^{2}-n)/2}}{2n+1}}=1+{\frac {1}{3}}-{\frac {1}{5}}-{\frac {1}{7}}+{\frac {1}{9}}+{\frac {1}{11}}-\cdots ={\frac {\pi }{2{\sqrt {2}}}}}
(Newton , Second Letter to Oldenburg , 1676) [ 3]
∫
0
∞
ln
(
1
+
1
x
2
)
d
x
=
π
{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }\ln \left(1+{\frac {1}{x^{2}}}\right)\,dx=\pi }
[ 4]
∫
0
∞
d
x
x
(
x
+
a
)
(
x
+
b
)
=
π
agm
(
a
,
b
)
{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {dx}{\sqrt {x(x+a)(x+b)}}}={\frac {\pi }{\operatorname {agm} ({\sqrt {a}},{\sqrt {b}})}}}
(donde
agm
{\displaystyle \operatorname {agm} }
es la media aritmético-geométrica ; véase también la integral elíptica )
Nótese que los integrandos simétricos
f
(
−
x
)
=
f
(
x
)
{\displaystyle f(-x)=f(x)}
, que tienen la forma
∫
−
a
a
f
(
x
)
d
x
{\textstyle \int _{-a}^{a}f(x)\,dx}
también se pueden traducir a la forma
2
∫
0
a
f
(
x
)
d
x
{\textstyle 2\int _{0}^{a}f(x)\,dx}
.
Series infinitas eficientes
editar
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
2
n
+
1
)
4
=
1
1
4
+
1
3
4
+
1
5
4
+
1
7
4
+
⋯
=
π
4
96
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2n+1}}\right)^{4}={\frac {1}{1^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{7^{4}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{4}}{96}}}
∑
k
=
0
∞
k
!
(
2
k
+
1
)
!
!
=
∑
k
=
0
∞
2
k
k
!
2
(
2
k
+
1
)
!
=
π
2
{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {k!}{(2k+1)!!}}=\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {2^{k}k!^{2}}{(2k+1)!}}={\frac {\pi }{2}}}
(véase también doble factorial )
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
3
n
(
2
n
+
1
)
=
1
−
1
3
1
⋅
3
+
1
3
2
⋅
5
−
1
3
3
⋅
7
+
1
3
4
⋅
9
−
⋯
=
3
arctan
1
3
=
π
2
3
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{3^{n}(2n+1)}}=1-{\frac {1}{3^{1}\cdot 3}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}\cdot 5}}-{\frac {1}{3^{3}\cdot 7}}+{\frac {1}{3^{4}\cdot 9}}-\cdots ={\sqrt {3}}\arctan {\frac {1}{\sqrt {3}}}={\frac {\pi }{2{\sqrt {3}}}}}
(Serie Madhava )
∑
k
=
0
∞
k
!
(
2
k
)
!
(
25
k
−
3
)
(
3
k
)
!
2
k
=
π
2
{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {k!\,(2k)!\,(25k-3)}{(3k)!\,2^{k}}}={\frac {\pi }{2}}}
Las siguientes fórmulas son eficientes para calcular dígitos binarios arbitrarios de π:
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
(
−
1
)
n
2
n
+
1
)
3
=
1
1
3
−
1
3
3
+
1
5
3
−
1
7
3
+
⋯
=
π
3
32
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {(-1)^{n}}{2n+1}}\right)^{3}={\frac {1}{1^{3}}}-{\frac {1}{3^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{3}}}-{\frac {1}{7^{3}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{3}}{32}}}
∑
k
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
k
(
6
k
)
!
(
13591409
+
545140134
k
)
(
3
k
)
!
(
k
!
)
3
640320
3
k
=
4270934400
10005
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{k}(6k)!(13591409+545140134k)}{(3k)!(k!)^{3}640320^{3k}}}={\frac {4270934400}{{\sqrt {10005}}\pi }}}
(véase el algoritmo de Chudnovsky )
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
2
n
+
1
)
6
=
1
1
6
+
1
3
6
+
1
5
6
+
1
7
6
+
⋯
=
π
6
960
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2n+1}}\right)^{6}={\frac {1}{1^{6}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{6}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{6}}}+{\frac {1}{7^{6}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{6}}{960}}}
∫
0
1
x
4
(
1
−
x
)
4
1
+
x
2
d
x
=
22
7
−
π
{\displaystyle \int _{0}^{1}{x^{4}(1-x)^{4} \over 1+x^{2}}\,dx={22 \over 7}-\pi }
(véase también la prueba de que 22/7 es mayor que π ).
Serie de Plouffe para calcular dígitos decimales arbitrarios de π: [ 5]
∑
k
=
0
∞
(
4
k
)
!
(
1103
+
26390
k
)
(
k
!
)
4
396
4
k
=
9801
2
2
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(4k)!(1103+26390k)}{(k!)^{4}396^{4k}}}={\frac {9801}{2{\sqrt {2}}\pi }}}
(véase: Srinivasa Ramanujan , serie Ramanujan-Sato )
∑
k
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
k
4
k
(
2
4
k
+
1
+
2
4
k
+
2
+
1
4
k
+
3
)
=
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{k}}{4^{k}}}\left({\frac {2}{4k+1}}+{\frac {2}{4k+2}}+{\frac {1}{4k+3}}\right)=\pi }
[ 6]
ζ
(
2
)
=
1
1
2
+
1
2
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
4
2
+
⋯
=
π
2
6
{\displaystyle \zeta (2)={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{4^{2}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{2}}{6}}}
(ver también problema de Basilea y función zeta de Riemann )
∑
k
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
k
2
10
k
(
−
2
5
4
k
+
1
−
1
4
k
+
3
+
2
8
10
k
+
1
−
2
6
10
k
+
3
−
2
2
10
k
+
5
−
2
2
10
k
+
7
+
1
10
k
+
9
)
=
2
6
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {{(-1)}^{k}}{2^{10k}}}\left(-{\frac {2^{5}}{4k+1}}-{\frac {1}{4k+3}}+{\frac {2^{8}}{10k+1}}-{\frac {2^{6}}{10k+3}}-{\frac {2^{2}}{10k+5}}-{\frac {2^{2}}{10k+7}}+{\frac {1}{10k+9}}\right)=2^{6}\pi }
∑
k
=
1
∞
k
2
k
k
!
2
(
2
k
)
!
=
π
+
3
{\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{\infty }k{\frac {2^{k}k!^{2}}{(2k)!}}=\pi +3}
∑
n
=
1
∞
3
n
−
1
4
n
ζ
(
n
+
1
)
=
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {3^{n}-1}{4^{n}}}\,\zeta (n+1)=\pi }
[ 7]
∑
n
=
2
∞
2
(
3
/
2
)
n
−
3
n
(
ζ
(
n
)
−
1
)
=
ln
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=2}^{\infty }{\frac {2(3/2)^{n}-3}{n}}(\zeta (n)-1)=\ln \pi }
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
2
n
+
1
=
1
−
1
3
+
1
5
−
1
7
+
1
9
−
⋯
=
arctan
1
=
π
4
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{2n+1}}=1-{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{5}}-{\frac {1}{7}}+{\frac {1}{9}}-\cdots =\arctan {1}={\frac {\pi }{4}}}
(ver fórmula de Leibniz para pi )
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
(
n
2
−
n
)
/
2
2
n
+
1
=
1
+
1
3
−
1
5
−
1
7
+
1
9
+
1
11
−
⋯
=
π
2
2
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{(n^{2}-n)/2}}{2n+1}}=1+{\frac {1}{3}}-{\frac {1}{5}}-{\frac {1}{7}}+{\frac {1}{9}}+{\frac {1}{11}}-\cdots ={\frac {\pi }{2{\sqrt {2}}}}}
(Newton , Second Letter to Oldenburg, 1676) [ 3]
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
3
n
(
2
n
+
1
)
=
1
−
1
3
1
⋅
3
+
1
3
2
⋅
5
−
1
3
3
⋅
7
+
1
3
4
⋅
9
−
⋯
=
3
arctan
1
3
=
π
2
3
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{3^{n}(2n+1)}}=1-{\frac {1}{3^{1}\cdot 3}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}\cdot 5}}-{\frac {1}{3^{3}\cdot 7}}+{\frac {1}{3^{4}\cdot 9}}-\cdots ={\sqrt {3}}\arctan {\frac {1}{\sqrt {3}}}={\frac {\pi }{2{\sqrt {3}}}}}
( Serie Madhava )
ζ
(
4
)
=
1
1
4
+
1
2
4
+
1
3
4
+
1
4
4
+
⋯
=
π
4
90
{\displaystyle \zeta (4)={\frac {1}{1^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{2^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{4^{4}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{4}}{90}}}
∑
n
=
1
∞
ζ
(
2
n
)
x
2
n
n
=
ln
π
x
sin
π
x
,
0
<
|
x
|
<
1
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }\zeta (2n){\frac {x^{2n}}{n}}=\ln {\frac {\pi x}{\sin \pi x}},\quad 0<|x|<1}
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
2
n
+
1
)
2
=
1
1
2
+
1
3
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
7
2
+
⋯
=
π
2
8
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2n+1}}\right)^{2}={\frac {1}{1^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{2}}}+{\frac {1}{7^{2}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{2}}{8}}}
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
(
−
1
)
n
2
n
+
1
)
3
=
1
1
3
−
1
3
3
+
1
5
3
−
1
7
3
+
⋯
=
π
3
32
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {(-1)^{n}}{2n+1}}\right)^{3}={\frac {1}{1^{3}}}-{\frac {1}{3^{3}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{3}}}-{\frac {1}{7^{3}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{3}}{32}}}
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
2
n
+
1
)
4
=
1
1
4
+
1
3
4
+
1
5
4
+
1
7
4
+
⋯
=
π
4
96
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2n+1}}\right)^{4}={\frac {1}{1^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{4}}}+{\frac {1}{7^{4}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{4}}{96}}}
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
(
−
1
)
n
2
n
+
1
)
5
=
1
1
5
−
1
3
5
+
1
5
5
−
1
7
5
+
⋯
=
5
π
5
1536
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {(-1)^{n}}{2n+1}}\right)^{5}={\frac {1}{1^{5}}}-{\frac {1}{3^{5}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{5}}}-{\frac {1}{7^{5}}}+\cdots ={\frac {5\pi ^{5}}{1536}}}
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
2
n
+
1
)
6
=
1
1
6
+
1
3
6
+
1
5
6
+
1
7
6
+
⋯
=
π
6
960
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {1}{2n+1}}\right)^{6}={\frac {1}{1^{6}}}+{\frac {1}{3^{6}}}+{\frac {1}{5^{6}}}+{\frac {1}{7^{6}}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi ^{6}}{960}}}
En general,
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
(
2
n
+
1
)
2
k
+
1
=
(
−
1
)
k
E
2
k
2
(
2
k
)
!
(
π
2
)
2
k
+
1
,
k
∈
N
0
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{(2n+1)^{2k+1}}}=(-1)^{k}{\frac {E_{2k}}{2(2k)!}}\left({\frac {\pi }{2}}\right)^{2k+1},\quad k\in \mathbb {N} _{0}}
donde
E
2
k
{\displaystyle E_{2k}}
es el número de Euler
2
k
{\displaystyle 2k}
. [ 8]
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
2
n
)
(
−
1
)
n
2
n
+
1
=
1
−
1
6
−
1
40
−
⋯
=
π
4
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\binom {\frac {1}{2}}{n}}{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{2n+1}}=1-{\frac {1}{6}}-{\frac {1}{40}}-\cdots ={\frac {\pi }{4}}}
∑
n
=
0
∞
1
(
4
n
+
1
)
(
4
n
+
3
)
=
1
1
⋅
3
+
1
5
⋅
7
+
1
9
⋅
11
+
⋯
=
π
8
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(4n+1)(4n+3)}}={\frac {1}{1\cdot 3}}+{\frac {1}{5\cdot 7}}+{\frac {1}{9\cdot 11}}+\cdots ={\frac {\pi }{8}}}
∑
n
=
1
∞
(
−
1
)
(
n
2
+
n
)
/
2
+
1
|
G
(
(
−
1
)
n
+
1
+
6
n
−
3
)
/
4
|
=
|
G
1
|
+
|
G
2
|
−
|
G
4
|
−
|
G
5
|
+
|
G
7
|
+
|
G
8
|
−
|
G
10
|
−
|
G
11
|
+
⋯
=
3
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }(-1)^{(n^{2}+n)/2+1}\left|G_{\left((-1)^{n+1}+6n-3\right)/4}\right|=|G_{1}|+|G_{2}|-|G_{4}|-|G_{5}|+|G_{7}|+|G_{8}|-|G_{10}|-|G_{11}|+\cdots ={\frac {\sqrt {3}}{\pi }}}
(ver coeficientes de Gregory )
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
1
/
2
)
n
2
2
n
n
!
2
∑
n
=
0
∞
n
(
1
/
2
)
n
2
2
n
n
!
2
=
1
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(1/2)_{n}^{2}}{2^{n}n!^{2}}}\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {n(1/2)_{n}^{2}}{2^{n}n!^{2}}}={\frac {1}{\pi }}}
(donde
(
x
)
n
{\displaystyle (x)_{n}}
es el factorial ascendente ) [ 9]
∑
n
=
1
∞
(
−
1
)
n
+
1
n
(
n
+
1
)
(
2
n
+
1
)
=
π
−
3
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n+1}}{n(n+1)(2n+1)}}=\pi -3}
(Serie Nilakantha )
∑
n
=
1
∞
F
2
n
n
2
(
2
n
n
)
=
4
π
2
25
5
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {F_{2n}}{n^{2}{\binom {2n}{n}}}}={\frac {4\pi ^{2}}{25{\sqrt {5}}}}}
(dónde
F
n
{\displaystyle F_{n}}
es el enésimo número de Fibonacci )
∑
n
=
1
∞
σ
(
n
)
e
−
2
π
n
=
1
24
−
1
8
π
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=1}^{\infty }\sigma (n)e^{-2\pi n}={\frac {1}{24}}-{\frac {1}{8\pi }}}
(dónde
σ
{\displaystyle \sigma }
es la función de suma de divisores )
π
=
∑
n
=
1
∞
(
−
1
)
ϵ
(
n
)
n
=
1
+
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
−
1
5
+
1
6
+
1
7
+
1
8
+
1
9
−
1
10
+
1
11
+
1
12
−
1
13
+
⋯
{\displaystyle \pi =\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{\epsilon (n)}}{n}}=1+{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{4}}-{\frac {1}{5}}+{\frac {1}{6}}+{\frac {1}{7}}+{\frac {1}{8}}+{\frac {1}{9}}-{\frac {1}{10}}+{\frac {1}{11}}+{\frac {1}{12}}-{\frac {1}{13}}+\cdots }
(donde
ϵ
(
n
)
{\displaystyle \epsilon (n)}
es el número de factores primos de la forma
p
≡
1
(
m
o
d
4
)
{\displaystyle p\equiv 1\,(\mathrm {mod} \,4)}
de
n
{\displaystyle n}
) [ 10] [ 11]
π
2
=
∑
n
=
1
∞
(
−
1
)
ε
(
n
)
n
=
1
+
1
2
−
1
3
+
1
4
+
1
5
−
1
6
−
1
7
+
1
8
+
1
9
+
⋯
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{\varepsilon (n)}}{n}}=1+{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{4}}+{\frac {1}{5}}-{\frac {1}{6}}-{\frac {1}{7}}+{\frac {1}{8}}+{\frac {1}{9}}+\cdots }
(donde
ε
(
n
)
{\displaystyle \varepsilon (n)}
es el número de factores primos de la forma
p
≡
3
(
m
o
d
4
)
{\displaystyle p\equiv 3\,(\mathrm {mod} \,4)}
de
n
{\displaystyle n}
) [ 12]
π
=
∑
n
=
−
∞
∞
(
−
1
)
n
n
+
1
/
2
{\displaystyle \pi =\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{n+1/2}}}
π
2
=
∑
n
=
−
∞
∞
1
(
n
+
1
/
2
)
2
{\displaystyle \pi ^{2}=\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(n+1/2)^{2}}}}
[ 13]
Las dos últimas fórmulas son casos especiales de
π
sin
π
x
=
∑
n
=
−
∞
∞
(
−
1
)
n
n
+
x
(
π
sin
π
x
)
2
=
∑
n
=
−
∞
∞
1
(
n
+
x
)
2
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi x}}&=\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}}{n+x}}\\\left({\frac {\pi }{\sin \pi x}}\right)^{2}&=\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {1}{(n+x)^{2}}}\end{aligned}}}
que generan infinitas fórmulas análogas para
π
{\displaystyle \pi }
cuando
x
∈
Q
∖
Z
.
{\displaystyle x\in \mathbb {Q} \setminus \mathbb {Z} .}
Algunas fórmulas que relacionan π y números armónicos se pueden ver aquí . Otras series infinitas que contienen a π son: [ 14]
π
=
1
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {1}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
(
2
n
)
!
)
3
(
42
n
+
5
)
(
n
!
)
6
16
3
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {((2n)!)^{3}(42n+5)}{(n!)^{6}{16}^{3n+1}}}}
π
=
4
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
(
4
n
)
!
(
21460
n
+
1123
)
(
n
!
)
4
441
2
n
+
1
2
10
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}(4n)!(21460n+1123)}{(n!)^{4}{441}^{2n+1}{2}^{10n+1}}}}
π
=
4
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
6
n
+
1
)
(
1
2
)
n
3
4
n
(
n
!
)
3
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(6n+1)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}^{3}}{{4^{n}}(n!)^{3}}}}
π
=
32
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {32}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
5
−
1
2
)
8
n
(
42
n
5
+
30
n
+
5
5
−
1
)
(
1
2
)
n
3
64
n
(
n
!
)
3
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {{\sqrt {5}}-1}{2}}\right)^{8n}{\frac {(42n{\sqrt {5}}+30n+5{\sqrt {5}}-1)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}^{3}}{{64^{n}}(n!)^{3}}}}
π
=
27
4
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {27}{4Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
2
27
)
n
(
15
n
+
2
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
3
)
n
(
2
3
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {2}{27}}\right)^{n}{\frac {(15n+2)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{3}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {2}{3}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}}}}
π
=
15
3
2
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {15{\sqrt {3}}}{2Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
4
125
)
n
(
33
n
+
4
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
3
)
n
(
2
3
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {4}{125}}\right)^{n}{\frac {(33n+4)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{3}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {2}{3}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}}}}
π
=
85
85
18
3
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {85{\sqrt {85}}}{18{\sqrt {3}}Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
4
85
)
n
(
133
n
+
8
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
6
)
n
(
5
6
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {4}{85}}\right)^{n}{\frac {(133n+8)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{6}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {5}{6}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}}}}
π
=
5
5
2
3
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {5{\sqrt {5}}}{2{\sqrt {3}}Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
4
125
)
n
(
11
n
+
1
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
6
)
n
(
5
6
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left({\frac {4}{125}}\right)^{n}{\frac {(11n+1)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{6}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {5}{6}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}}}}
π
=
2
3
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {2{\sqrt {3}}}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
8
n
+
1
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
4
)
n
(
3
4
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
9
n
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(8n+1)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{4}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}{9}^{n}}}}
π
=
3
9
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {\sqrt {3}}{9Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
40
n
+
3
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
4
)
n
(
3
4
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
49
2
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(40n+3)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{4}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}{49}^{2n+1}}}}
π
=
2
11
11
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {2{\sqrt {11}}}{11Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
280
n
+
19
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
4
)
n
(
3
4
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
99
2
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(280n+19)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{4}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}{99}^{2n+1}}}}
π
=
2
4
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {\sqrt {2}}{4Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
10
n
+
1
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
4
)
n
(
3
4
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
9
2
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(10n+1)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{4}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}{9}^{2n+1}}}}
π
=
4
5
5
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4{\sqrt {5}}}{5Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
644
n
+
41
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
4
)
n
(
3
4
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
5
n
72
2
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(644n+41)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{4}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}5^{n}{72}^{2n+1}}}}
π
=
4
3
3
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4{\sqrt {3}}}{3Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
(
28
n
+
3
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
4
)
n
(
3
4
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
3
n
4
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}(28n+3)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{4}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}{3^{n}}{4}^{n+1}}}}
π
=
4
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {4}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
(
20
n
+
3
)
(
1
2
)
n
(
1
4
)
n
(
3
4
)
n
(
n
!
)
3
2
2
n
+
1
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}(20n+3)\left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {1}{4}}\right)_{n}\left({\frac {3}{4}}\right)_{n}}{(n!)^{3}{2}^{2n+1}}}}
π
=
72
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {72}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
(
4
n
)
!
(
260
n
+
23
)
(
n
!
)
4
4
4
n
18
2
n
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}(4n)!(260n+23)}{(n!)^{4}4^{4n}18^{2n}}}}
π
=
3528
Z
{\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {3528}{Z}}}
Z
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
(
−
1
)
n
(
4
n
)
!
(
21460
n
+
1123
)
(
n
!
)
4
4
4
n
882
2
n
{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}(4n)!(21460n+1123)}{(n!)^{4}4^{4n}882^{2n}}}}
donde
(
x
)
n
{\displaystyle (x)_{n}}
es el símbolo de Pochhammer para el factorial ascendente. Véase también Serie Ramanujan-Sato .
π
4
=
arctan
1
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=\arctan 1}
π
4
=
4
arctan
1
5
−
arctan
1
239
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=4\arctan {\frac {1}{5}}-\arctan {\frac {1}{239}}}
(la fórmula original de Machin )
π
4
=
5
arctan
1
7
+
2
arctan
3
79
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=5\arctan {\frac {1}{7}}+2\arctan {\frac {3}{79}}}
π
4
=
6
arctan
1
8
+
2
arctan
1
57
+
arctan
1
239
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=6\arctan {\frac {1}{8}}+2\arctan {\frac {1}{57}}+\arctan {\frac {1}{239}}}
π
4
=
12
arctan
1
49
+
32
arctan
1
57
−
5
arctan
1
239
+
12
arctan
1
110443
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=12\arctan {\frac {1}{49}}+32\arctan {\frac {1}{57}}-5\arctan {\frac {1}{239}}+12\arctan {\frac {1}{110443}}}
π
4
=
44
arctan
1
57
+
7
arctan
1
239
−
12
arctan
1
682
+
24
arctan
1
12943
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=44\arctan {\frac {1}{57}}+7\arctan {\frac {1}{239}}-12\arctan {\frac {1}{682}}+24\arctan {\frac {1}{12943}}}
π
4
=
(
∏
p
≡
1
(
mod
4
)
p
p
−
1
)
⋅
(
∏
p
≡
3
(
mod
4
)
p
p
+
1
)
=
3
4
⋅
5
4
⋅
7
8
⋅
11
12
⋅
13
12
⋯
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=\left(\prod _{p\equiv 1{\pmod {4}}}{\frac {p}{p-1}}\right)\cdot \left(\prod _{p\equiv 3{\pmod {4}}}{\frac {p}{p+1}}\right)={\frac {3}{4}}\cdot {\frac {5}{4}}\cdot {\frac {7}{8}}\cdot {\frac {11}{12}}\cdot {\frac {13}{12}}\cdots ,}
(Euler)
Donde los numeradores son los números primos impares; cada denominador es el múltiplo de cuatro más cerca del numerador.
Representación de un producto infinito a partir de un límite:
π
4
=
∏
n
=
2
∞
(
n
−
1
)
n
(
2
n
−
1
)
(
n
+
1
)
n
(
2
n
+
1
)
n
4
n
2
=
lim
n
→
∞
(
n
!
)
2
(
n
+
2
)
2
n
2
+
5
n
+
3
8
(
n
+
1
)
2
n
2
+
7
n
+
4
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=\prod _{n=2}^{\infty }{\frac {(n-1)^{n(2n-1)}(n+1)^{n(2n+1)}}{n^{4n^{2}}}}={\underset {n\to \infty }{\text{lim}}}{\frac {(n!)^{2}(n+2)^{2n^{2}+5n+3}}{8(n+1)^{2n^{2}+7n+4}}}}
[ 15]
π
2
k
+
1
=
arctan
2
−
a
k
−
1
a
k
,
k
≥
2
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2^{k+1}}}=\arctan {\frac {\sqrt {2-a_{k-1}}}{a_{k}}},\qquad \qquad k\geq 2}
π
4
=
∑
k
≥
2
arctan
2
−
a
k
−
1
a
k
,
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{4}}=\sum _{k\geq 2}\arctan {\frac {\sqrt {2-a_{k-1}}}{a_{k}}},}
donde
a
k
=
2
+
a
k
−
1
{\displaystyle a_{k}={\sqrt {2+a_{k-1}}}}
tal que
a
1
=
2
{\displaystyle a_{1}={\sqrt {2}}}
.
π
2
=
∑
k
=
0
∞
arctan
1
F
2
k
+
1
=
arctan
1
1
+
arctan
1
2
+
arctan
1
5
+
arctan
1
13
+
⋯
{\displaystyle {\frac {\pi }{2}}=\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }\arctan {\frac {1}{F_{2k+1}}}=\arctan {\frac {1}{1}}+\arctan {\frac {1}{2}}+\arctan {\frac {1}{5}}+\arctan {\frac {1}{13}}+\cdots }
donde
F
k
{\displaystyle F_{k}}
es el k -ésimo número de Fibonacci.
π
=
arctan
a
+
arctan
b
+
arctan
c
{\displaystyle \pi =\arctan a+\arctan b+\arctan c}
cuando
a
+
b
+
c
=
a
b
c
{\displaystyle a+b+c=abc}
y
a
{\displaystyle a}
,
b
{\displaystyle b}
,
c
{\displaystyle c}
son números reales positivos (see Identidades trigonométricas ). Un caso especial es:
π
=
arctan
1
+
arctan
2
+
arctan
3.
{\displaystyle \pi =\arctan 1+\arctan 2+\arctan 3.}
e
i
π
+
1
=
0
{\displaystyle e^{i\pi }+1=0}
(Identidad de Euler )
Las siguientes equivalencias son verdaderas para cualquier número complejo
z
{\displaystyle z}
:
e
z
∈
R
↔
ℑ
z
∈
π
Z
{\displaystyle e^{z}\in \mathbb {R} \leftrightarrow \Im z\in \pi \mathbb {Z} }
e
z
=
1
↔
z
∈
2
π
i
Z
{\displaystyle e^{z}=1\leftrightarrow z\in 2\pi i\mathbb {Z} }
[ 16]
Además
1
e
z
−
1
=
lim
N
→
∞
∑
n
=
−
N
N
1
z
−
2
π
i
n
−
1
2
,
z
∈
C
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{e^{z}-1}}=\lim _{N\to \infty }\sum _{n=-N}^{N}{\frac {1}{z-2\pi in}}-{\frac {1}{2}},\quad z\in \mathbb {C} .}
Suponemos que una red
Ω
{\displaystyle \Omega }
es generada por dos períodos
ω
1
,
ω
2
{\displaystyle \omega _{1},\omega _{2}}
. Definimos los quasi-periodos de esta red con
η
1
=
ζ
(
z
+
ω
1
;
Ω
)
−
ζ
(
z
;
Ω
)
{\displaystyle \eta _{1}=\zeta (z+\omega _{1};\Omega )-\zeta (z;\Omega )}
y
η
2
=
ζ
(
z
+
ω
2
;
Ω
)
−
ζ
(
z
;
Ω
)
{\displaystyle \eta _{2}=\zeta (z+\omega _{2};\Omega )-\zeta (z;\Omega )}
donde
ζ
{\displaystyle \zeta }
es la función zeta de Weierstrass (
η
1
{\displaystyle \eta _{1}}
y
η
2
{\displaystyle \eta _{2}}
son independientes de
z
{\displaystyle z}
). Entonces los periodos y quasi-periodos son relacionados con la identidad de Legendre:
η
1
ω
2
−
η
2
ω
1
=
2
π
i
.
{\displaystyle \eta _{1}\omega _{2}-\eta _{2}\omega _{1}=2\pi i.}
4
π
=
1
+
1
2
2
+
3
2
2
+
5
2
2
+
7
2
2
+
⋱
{\displaystyle {\frac {4}{\pi }}=1+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{2+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{2+{\cfrac {5^{2}}{2+{\cfrac {7^{2}}{2+\ddots }}}}}}}}}
[ 17]
ϖ
2
π
=
2
+
1
2
4
+
3
2
4
+
5
2
4
+
7
2
4
+
⋱
{\displaystyle {\frac {\varpi ^{2}}{\pi }}={2+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{4+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{4+{\cfrac {5^{2}}{4+{\cfrac {7^{2}}{4+\ddots \,}}}}}}}}}\quad }
(Ramanujan ,
ϖ
{\displaystyle \varpi }
es la constante de la lemniscata )
π
=
3
+
1
2
6
+
3
2
6
+
5
2
6
+
7
2
6
+
⋱
{\displaystyle \pi ={3+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {5^{2}}{6+{\cfrac {7^{2}}{6+\ddots \,}}}}}}}}}}
[ 17]
π
=
4
1
+
1
2
3
+
2
2
5
+
3
2
7
+
4
2
9
+
⋱
{\displaystyle \pi ={\cfrac {4}{1+{\cfrac {1^{2}}{3+{\cfrac {2^{2}}{5+{\cfrac {3^{2}}{7+{\cfrac {4^{2}}{9+\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}
2
π
=
6
+
2
2
12
+
6
2
12
+
10
2
12
+
14
2
12
+
18
2
12
+
⋱
{\displaystyle 2\pi ={6+{\cfrac {2^{2}}{12+{\cfrac {6^{2}}{12+{\cfrac {10^{2}}{12+{\cfrac {14^{2}}{12+{\cfrac {18^{2}}{12+\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}
Para más información sobre la cuarta fórmula, véase: Fracción continua de Euler .
Inversiones hipergeométricas
editar
↑ Galperin, G. (2003). «Playing pool with π (the number π from a billiard point of view)» . Regular and Chaotic Dynamics 8 (4): 375-394. doi :10.1070/RD2003v008n04ABEH000252 .
↑ Rudin, Walter (1987). Real and Complex Analysis (Third edición). McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 0-07-100276-6 . p. 4
↑ a b Chrystal, G. (1900). Algebra, an Elementary Text-book: Part II . p. 335.
↑ A000796 – OEIS
↑ Gourdon, Xavier. «Computation of the n-th decimal digit of π with low memory» . Numbers, constants and computation .
↑ Arndt, Jörg; Haenel, Christoph (2001). π Unleashed . Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3-540-66572-4 . page 126
↑ Weisstein, Eric W. "Pi Formulas", MathWorld
↑ Eymard, Pierre; Lafon, Jean-Pierre (2004). The Number Pi . American Mathematical Society. ISBN 0-8218-3246-8 . p. 112
↑ Cooper, Shaun (2017). Ramanujan's Theta Functions (First edición). Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-56171-4 . (page 647)
↑ Euler, Leonhard (1748). Introductio in analysin infinitorum (en latin) 1 . p. 245
↑ Carl B. Boyer , A History of Mathematics , Chapter 21., pp. 488–489
↑ Euler, Leonhard (1748). Introductio in analysin infinitorum (en latin) 1 . p. 244
↑ Wästlund, Johan. «Summing inverse squares by euclidean geometry» . The paper gives the formula with a minus sign instead, but these results are equivalent.
↑ Simon Plouffe / David Bailey. «The world of Pi» . Pi314.net. Consultado el 29 de enero de 2011 . «Collection of series for π» . Numbers.computation.free.fr. Consultado el 29 de enero de 2011 .
↑ A. G. Llorente, Shifting Constants Through Infinite Product Transformations , preprint, 2024.
↑ Rudin, Walter (1987). Real and Complex Analysis (Third edición). McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 0-07-100276-6 . p. 3
↑ a b Amazing and aesthetic aspects of analysis . Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 2017. p. 589. ISBN 978-1-4939-6793-3 .
En inglés:
Borwein, Peter (2000). «The amazing number π» . Nieuw Archief voor Wiskunde . 5th series 1 (3): 254-258.
Kazuya Kato, Nobushige Kurokawa, Saito Takeshi: Number Theory 1: Fermat's Dream. American Mathematical Society, Providence 1993, ISBN 0-8218-0863-X .